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Contamination of fish with natural toxins from the harvest area can cause consumer illness. Most of these toxins are produced by species of naturally occurring marine algae (phytoplankton). They accumulate in fish when they feed on the algae or on other fish that have fed on the algae. There are also a few natural toxins which are naturally occurring in certain species of fish.
There are five recognized fish poisoning syndromes in the United States: amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP), diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP), neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP), paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), and ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP). Scombrotoxin formation, the subject of Chapter 27, is not considered a natural toxin.
Information about species and geographic areas, which have been linked to one of the five fish-poisoning syndromes, is based on historical occurrence of the syndrome. Historical occurrence may be an inadequate guide to future occurrence in the case of natural toxins, since the source algae vary in their distribution. Processors need to be alert to the potential for emerging problems.
Marine toxins are not ordinarily a problem in scallops if only the adductor muscle is consumed. However, products such as roe-on scallops and whole scallops do present a potential hazard for natural toxins. (FDA, 1998s).
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Amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP)Amnesic shellfish poisoning is generally associated with the consumption of molluscan shellfish from the northeast and northwest coasts of North America. It has not yet been a problem in the Gulf of Mexico, although the algae that produces the toxin has been found there. ASP toxin has recently been identified as a problem in the viscera of Dungeness crab, tanner crab, red rock crab, and anchovies along the west coast of the United States (FDA, 1998s).
Domoic acid produced by dense growth of an algae in the genus Pseudonitzschia causes ASP. In the early stages of ASP, the individual usually experiences intestinal distress. Severe ASP can cause a facial grimace or chewing motion, short-term memory loss and difficulty breathing. Death can occur (Ward et al., 1997).
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Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP)Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning is generally associated with the consumption of molluscan shellfish. There has been no documented occurrence to date in the U.S. However, instances have been documented in Japan, southeast Asia, Scandinavia, western Europe, Chile, New Zealand, and eastern Canada (FDA, 1998s).
A number of algae species in the genera Dinophysis and Prorocentrum have been associated with DSP. These algae are responsible for the production of a number of toxins, including okadaic acid and its derivatives.
The symptoms of DSP are diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, moderate to severe abdominal pain and cramps, and chills. No known fatalities have occurred, and total recovery is expected within three days, with or without medical assistance (Ward et al., 1997).
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Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP)Neurotoxic shellfish poisoning in the U.S. is generally associated with the consumption of molluscan shellfish harvested along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and, sporadically, along the southern Atlantic coast. There has been a significant occurrence of toxins similar to NSP in New Zealand, and some suggestions of occurrence elsewhere (FDA, 1998s).
NSP is caused by Gymnodinium breve. Blooms of this algae usually result in fish kills and can make shellfish toxic to humans. The blooms generally begin offshore and move inshore. G. breve produces three known toxins (brevetoxins).
NSP resembles a mild case of ciguatera or PSP. Symptoms begin within three hours of consuming contaminated shellfish. Symptoms include: tingling of the face that spreads to other parts of the body, cold-to-hot sensation reversal, dilation of the pupils, and a feeling of inebriation. Less commonly, victims may experience: prolonged diarrhea, nausea, poor coordination, and burning pain in the rectum (Ward et al., 1997).
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Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP)Paralytic shellfish poisoning in the U.S. is generally associated with the consumption of molluscan shellfish from the northeast and northwest coastal regions of the U.S. PSP in other parts of the world has been associated with molluscan shellfish from environments ranging from tropical to temperate waters. In addition, in the U.S., PSP toxin has recently been reported from the viscera of mackerel, lobster, Dungeness crabs, tanner crabs, and red rock crabs (FDA, 1998s).
PSP is caused by many species of toxic algae. These include Alexandrium, Pyrodinium and Gymnodinium. PSP can be caused by a combination of any of 18 toxins (saxitioxins), depending on the species of algae, geographic area and type of shellfish involved.
Symptoms of PSP initially involve numbness and a burning or tingling sensation of the lips and tongue that spreads to the face and fingertips. This leads to a general lack of muscle coordination in the arms, legs, and neck. A variety of other less commonly reported symptoms also exist. Severe cases of PSP have resulted in respiratory paralysis and death (Ward et al., 1997).
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Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP)Ciguatera toxin is carried to humans by contaminated finfish from the extreme southeastern U.S., Hawaii, and subtropical and tropical areas worldwide. In the south Florida, Bahamian, and Caribbean regions, barracuda, amberjack, horse-eye jack, black jack, other large species of jack, king mackerel, large groupers, and snappers are particularly likely to contain ciguatoxin. These species are not generally associated with ciguatera in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Many other species of large fish-eating fishes may be suspect. In Hawaii and throughout the central Pacific, barracuda, amberjack, and snapper are frequently ciguatoxic, and many other species both large and small are suspect. Mackerel and barracuda are frequently ciguatoxic from mid to northeastern Australian waters (FDA, 1998s).
CFP is caused by certain species of tropical and subtropical fish that consume toxic algae or other fish that have become toxic. The algae species most often associated with CFP is Gambierdiscus toxicus, but others are occasionally involved. There are at least four known toxins that concentrate in the viscera, head, or central nervous system of affected fish.
Ciguatera causes: diarrhea, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, abnormal or impaired skin sensations, vertigo, lack of muscle coordination, cold-to-hot sensation reversal, muscular pain, and itching. Some of the symptoms may recur for as long as six months. Death is infrequent, but may occur (Ward et al., 1997).
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There are naturally occurring toxins in some species that do not involve marine algae.
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GempylotoxinEscolar (i.e., Lepidocybium flavobrunneum, Ruvettus pretiosus) contains a strong purgative oil, called gempylotoxin. The diarrhea caused by eating the oil contained in the flesh and bones of these fish develops rapidly and is pronounced but generally without pain or cramping. No other untoward effects have been reported (FDA, 1998s; Ward et al., 1997).
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TetrodotoxinPuffer fish, or fugu, may contain tetrodotoxin. Poisonings from tetrodotoxin have usually been associated with the consumption of puffer fish from waters of the Indo-Pacific ocean regions. However, several reported cases of poisonings, including fatalities, involved puffer fish from the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and Gulf of California. There have been no confirmed cases of poisonings from the northern puffer (Sphoeroides maculatus) found in the Atlantic Ocean, but there is still reason for concern (FDA, 1998s).
Symptoms of poisoning usually begin within 10 minutes of consuming puffer fish. The victim first experiences numbness and tingling of the mouth. This is followed by weakness, paralysis, decreased blood pressure, and quickened and weakened pulse. Death can occur within 30 minutes (Ward et al., 1997).
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TetramineTetramine is a toxin that is found in the salivary glands of Neptunia spp., a type of whelk (FDA, 1998s).
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There are no validated, rapid methods that are suitable for shipboard, dockside, or commercial testing of lots of fish for any of these toxins (FDA, 1998s).
ASP, DSP, NSP, PSP, and CFPNatural toxins cannot be reliably eliminated by heat. However, severe heating processes, such as retorting, may be effective at reducing the levels of some natural toxins.
To minimize the risk of molluscan shellfish containing natural toxins from the harvest area, State and foreign government agencies, called Shellfish Control Authorities, classify waters in which molluscan shellfish are found, based, in part, on the presence of natural toxins. As a result of these classifications, molluscan shellfish harvesting is allowed from some waters, not from others, and only at certain times, or under certain conditions, from others. Shellfish Control Authorities then exercise control over the molluscan shellfish harvesters to ensure that harvesting takes place only when and where it has been permitted. Molluscan shellfish include oysters, clams, mussels, and scallops, except where the scallop product contains the shucked adductor muscle only.
Significant elements of Shellfish Control Authorities' efforts to control the harvesting of molluscan shellfish include: 1) a requirement that containers of in-shell molluscan shellfish (shellstock) bear a tag that identifies the type and quantity of shellfish, harvester, harvest location, and date of harvest; 2) a requirement that molluscan shellfish harvesters be licensed; 3) a requirement that processors that shuck molluscan shellfish or ship, reship, or repack the shucked product be certified; and, 4) a requirement that containers of shucked molluscan shellfish bear a label with their name, address, and certification number.
An established water classification system similar to the molluscan shellfish system is not in place for controlling CFP in finfish. However, some states issue advisories regarding reefs that are known to be toxic. In areas where there is no such advisory system, fisherman and processor must depend on first-hand knowledge about the safety of the reefs from which they obtain fish.
Where PSP or ASP have become a problem in finfish or crustaceans, states generally have closed or restricted the appropriate fisheries. In addition, the removal and destruction of the viscera will eliminate the hazard (FDA, 1998s).
GempylotoxinFDA advises against importation of escolar (i.e. Lepidocybium flavobrunneum, Ruvettus pretiosus) (FDA, 1998s).
TetramineThe hazard can be controlled by removing the salivary glands of Neptunia spp. (FDA, 1998s)
TetrodotoxinPuffer fish, or fugu, may not be imported except under strict certification requirements and specific authorization from FDA (FDA, 1998s).
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FDA has established guidance levels for all of the natural toxins except CFP (FDA, 1998s).
Table 26-1. FDA guidance levels for natural toxins.| Toxin | FDA Guideline |
| ASP | 20 ppm domoic acid, except in the viscera of Dungeness crab, where 30 ppm is permitted |
| DSP | 0.2 ppm okadaic acid plus 35-methyl okadaic acid (DXT 1) |
| NSP | 0.8 ppm (20 mouse units/100g) brevetoxin-2 equivalent |
| PSP | 0.8 ppm (80µg/100g) saxitoxin equivalent |
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|
Test Kit |
Analytical Technique |
Approx. Total Test Time |
Supplier |
|
Cigua-Check Fish Poison Test Kit |
Latex agglutination immunoassay |
50 min |
Oceanit Test Systems, Inc Web: www.cigua.com |
|
Test |
Analytical Technique |
Approx. Total Test Time |
Supplier |
|
RIDASCREEN Saxitoxin R1901 |
ELISA |
2 h |
R-Biopharm, Inc. |
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